General Information
Rock-Cut Dovecotes in Cappadocia During the Byzantine Period
Definition and Historical Background of Dovecotes
Dovecotes are specialized structures built to provide shelter, breeding spaces, and protection for pigeons. These structures not only safeguard pigeons from predators and human threats but also meet their nutritional and water needs (Maraşlı, 2019: 177). With historical roots dating back to antiquity, dovecotes have been known by various names such as "birdhouse," "dovecote," and "columbarium" across different geographical regions, exhibiting diverse architectural characteristics (Bilici and Bilici, 2021: 200).
During the Roman era, pigeon manure was considered a commercial product, while pigeons themselves were utilized for communication and military purposes (Bilici and Bilici, 2021: 200).
"Within the socio-economic conditions of the period, dovecotes were structured as significant subsidiary agricultural buildings. From an architectural perspective, two main types of dovecotes serving the same purpose can be identified. One type consists of rock-cut dovecotes, while the other features chimney-like extensions that distinguish them as chimneyed dovecotes" (Büyükmıhçı, 2006: 104).
Dovecotes in the Ottoman Period
In the Ottoman Empire, pigeons were highly valued by all social classes, from commoners to the palace elite, and were bred for consumption and trade. Special birdhouses were constructed within palace complexes for this purpose (Yılmaz and Ertuğrul, 2012: 4). Pigeon manure was particularly utilized in the vineyards of Cappadocia, for safflower production in Kayseri, and for watermelon cultivation in Diyarbakır to enhance agricultural yield. This manure was found to contain a high percentage of organic matter, nitrogen, and phosphoric acid (Büyükmıhçı, 2006: 100).
Dovecotes in Cappadocia
The Cappadocia region, home to thousands of rock-cut dovecotes, can be described as a "land of dovecotes." The easily carvable tuff-rich volcanic rocks provided an ideal medium for constructing these structures. Three types of dovecotes are identified in Cappadocia: rock-cut, rock-cut with masonry additions, and fully masonry-built dovecotes. Rock-cut dovecotes were either originally constructed for pigeon housing or adapted from other structures for this purpose. The region's geological composition of soft volcanic tuff and basalt facilitated the construction of these dovecotes (Maraşlı, 2019: 177-178) (Photo 1).
"In the Cappadocia region, particularly in valleys known as 'Dovecote Valleys,' these structures are widely found, with their surfaces adorned by local artists using elaborate decorations and inscriptions. These decorations, created with vibrant pigments, exhibit early examples of Turkish-Islamic folk painting. The designs include figures reflecting regional social life, plant and animal motifs, carpet and kilim patterns, geometric designs, and symmetrical compositions. Inside, niches and cavities were carved into the walls to facilitate egg-laying and nesting" (Büyükmıhçı, 2006: 106-107).
Architectural Features
Cappadocian dovecotes do not follow a standard architectural plan. They can be single or multi-storied and are usually carved into rocky cliffs or fairy chimneys. Square-shaped entry holes are positioned on the facades for pigeon access, while other openings are minimized for security purposes (Maraşlı, 2019: 179). Interior walls feature carved niches where pigeons nest and lay eggs. The structural design includes details such as staggered nest arrangements to prevent manure contamination (Büyükmıhçı, 2006: 111).
"The section designed for the safe habitation of pigeons and for the efficient collection of their highly valued manure is both geometrically and structurally simple. However, details such as staggered nest arrangements to prevent contamination during manure collection highlight the functional and meticulous planning of these structures. Built entirely using rock-cut techniques, the dovecotes deviate from conventional forms by being carved into the rock in a curvilinear manner" (Büyükmıhçı, 2006: 111).
"The facades facing the valleys typically feature one, two, or three rows of nearly square-shaped pigeon entry holes. Apart from these, there are minimal openings for security reasons. The only access for humans is the entrance used during manure collection. This entrance can be a tunnel opening at ground level or an elevated entry point accessible by a portable wooden ladder. It is believed that these entrances were sealed with temporary masonry when not in use" (Maraşlı, 2019: 179).
"During collection periods, individuals entered the structure through a narrow tunnel. The tunnel was small, allowing just enough space for a person to pass. A few steps led down to the floor of the nesting chamber, where accumulated manure was first gathered before being bagged and carried out through the tunnel. Steps were carved into the different levels to facilitate access and ensure efficient collection. The design of these steps varied depending on the topography of each dovecote" (Büyükmıhçı, 2006: 112).
"The interiors of dovecotes could consist of a single chamber or have two, three, or even more complex layouts. Typically, small perches measuring approximately 25-30 cm in width and 15-20 cm in depth were carved into the interior walls for pigeons to roost" (Maraşlı, 2019: 179).
"In a globalizing world, dovecotes stand out as symbols of local identity due to their unique architectural and functional features. This highlights the importance of defining what constitutes local heritage. As reflections of traditional production-consumption habits, dovecotes possess rarity value due to their architectural structures, eco-friendly integration with nature, and role in organic farming. These structures support both agricultural and commercial functions, making them an essential part of cultural heritage" (Büyükmıhçı, 2006: 116).
Decoration and Art
The surfaces of Cappadocian dovecotes feature decorative elements influenced by Turkish-Islamic folk art, including plant and animal motifs, geometric patterns, and symmetrical compositions. These decorations reflect the unique artistic interpretations of local craftsmen, depicting regional social life and natural elements (Büyükmıhçı, 2006: 106-107) (Photo 2).
Functionality and Ecological Significance of Dovecotes
Dovecotes serve not only as shelters but also as auxiliary agricultural structures supporting farming and trade. The manure collected from pigeons is a valuable organic fertilizer that enhances sustainable agriculture (Büyükmıhçı, 2006: 116).
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